
Citation: | JIAO Yifei, XIONG Xiaoman, REN Hao, MI Hongfu, HE Guoqin, LI Pin, WEI Xin. Effect of Various Material Obstacles on the Promoting Explosion of Methane-Hydrogen Premixed Gas[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2024, 38(1): 015202. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20230682 |
仿贝壳珍珠层复合材料作为新型复合材料,有着优异的力学性能,不仅具有很高的强度,而且具有很好的韧性,近年来引起了学术界的不断关注[1-6]。很多发达国家非常重视贝壳结构材料和仿生材料研究,如美国等国家设置了专门的经费来研究贝壳生物材料的仿生设计和性能,用于装甲防弹衣和防爆装置。贝壳珍珠层复合材料的优异力学性能与其微观结构密切联系,为此研究人员对珍珠质的微观结构特征(体积分数、片剂长宽比、重叠长度等)进行了深入分析,试图将其与模型的力学性能联系起来[7-12]。Dutta等[13]研究了珍珠层中裂纹的萌生规律,评估了重叠长度对裂纹尖端驱动力的影响。Kotha等[14]的研究显示,低纵横比的文石片可以制造出具有高韧性的复合材料。Barthelat等[15]发现,珍珠层没有实现稳定状态的裂纹扩展,并将其归因于片层拔出增韧机制。其他学者也发现珍珠层内部和外部韧化机制阻止了裂纹的扩展[16-21]。
Barthelat等[15]通过观察发现,在每层贝壳珍珠层中,平板的排列与Voronoi图相似,从一个红色鲍鱼标本的光学图像中可以看到每个贝壳层压板都有矿物片的随机分布,并与其他珍珠层成键。基于这些光学图像,他们生成了一个由两层贝壳的平板结构组成的几何模型,用于有限元分析。自1907年Shamos和Hoey提出分治算法的最初定义和描述之后,Voronoi图便成为众多学科的中心主题之一。Voronoi图所具有的自然描述性和操纵能力,使其获得了广泛应用[22-24]。尽管Voronoi图对科学和工程中的各种应用具有重大的潜在影响,但是在很多领域包括仿生结构领域,Voronoi结构对材料力学性能的影响还未得到透彻的理解,为此本工作将探讨Voronoi结构的随机性对仿贝壳珍珠层结构力学性能的影响。
为了研究仿贝壳珍珠层Voronoi随机模型结构的动态力学响应,首先建立一种铝/乙烯基复合材料结构的三维Voronoi模型,然后对模型在弹丸冲击载荷下的动态力学性能进行有限元模拟分析,最后讨论黏结层厚度和Voronoi模型分块尺寸对模型抗冲击力学性能的影响。
利用文献[25]给出的随机Voronoi技术生成Voronoi随机模型。图1描述了仿贝壳珍珠层随机Voronoi结构的生成技术。图1(a)显示了由网格组成的Voronoi初始构型,每个网格内都包含1个站点;站点可以在圆内随机移动,如图1(b)所示,站点位置
x=x0+rcosθ,y=y0+rsinθ |
(1) |
式中:
图2给出了规则片板单元模型以及4种不同分块尺寸的不规则Voronoi片板模型,5种模型的总体几何尺寸相同,均为240 mm × 240 mm × 15 mm,模型总层数均为5层。图2(a)为规则片板模型,每个规则片板的几何尺寸为30 mm × 30 mm × 3 mm,每层由8 × 8共64个片板组成,图2(b)~图2(e)分别给出了7 × 7、8 × 8、9 × 9和10 × 10分块的Voronoi不规则模型,每种模型均包括5层不同的随机单层结构,每层厚度为3 mm。
为了模拟仿贝壳珍珠层片层之间受冲击破坏时的脱黏现象,采用了内聚力Cohesive模型。通过合理的参数选择,内聚力Cohesive模型能够部分描述贝壳珍珠层内部层与层之间的变形和失效现象[2]。在片板之间以及板层之间插入Cohesive黏结层,考虑3种黏结层厚度0.1、0.2和0.3 mm,讨论黏结层厚度对模型冲击损伤的影响。
内聚力Cohesive模型的牵引分离定律涉及黏性牵引应力矢量
(tnt0n)2+(tst0s)2+(ttt0t)2=1 |
(2) |
式中:
Cohesive黏结层刚度退化速率满足
(GnG0n)2+(GsG0s)2+(GtG0t)2=1 |
(3) |
式中:
仿贝壳珍珠层三维Voronoi结构模型包括两种材料模型,其中片层采用铝AA5083-H116,片层之间Cohesive黏性层使用乙烯树脂材料。表1和表2列出了两种材料参数[19, 25],其中
Material | ρ/(kg·m−3) | ν | E/GPa |
Aluminum | 2750 | 0.3 | 72 |
t0n/MPa | t0s/MPa | t0t/MPa | G0n/(kJ·m−2) | G0s/(kJ·m−2) | G0t/(kJ·m−2) | ρ/(kg·m−3) | Es/GPa | Et/GPa |
80 | 80 | 80 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 850 | 4 | 1.5 |
在大应变情况下,铝合金的本构关系可采用Johnson-Cook模型描述
σ=(A+Bεn)(1+Cln˙ε˙ε0)[1−(T−TrT−Tm)m] |
(4) |
式中:
图3显示了模型的边界条件和加载条件。弹丸以18 m/s的初速度冲击Voronoi模型,弹丸速度属于中低速范围。弹丸模型上半部分是一个半径15 mm、长45 mm的圆柱体,下半部分是一个半径为15 mm的半球体,总长为60 mm,刚体属性。冲击载荷下仿贝壳珍珠层三维Voronoi模型的边界条件为4个侧边均完全固定,弹丸与复合结构模型的接触为通用接触,弹丸作用在复合结构模型中心。
黏结层网格类型采用COH3D8,铝片网格类型采用C3D8R,黏结层网格大小为1 mm,铝片网格大小为2 mm。在该网格密度下,模型的网格单元总数达到167230。节点总数为567001时,最大应力值保持稳定,网格的收敛性较好。
在珍珠层结构中,片板滑动机制被认为是激活内在和外在韧化机制的关键因素,可以阻止裂纹扩展。该机制分别引起内聚力和残余塑性应变,从而闭合裂纹。由于弹丸冲击载荷方向垂直于Voronoi板模型,冲击载荷破坏的主要形式是黏性层剥离,因此片板滑动引起的增韧机制在这种特定的冲击加载问题中不占主导地位。在冲击载荷下,损伤和变形耗散的能量比摩擦接触要多得多,Voronoi模型对珍珠层结构负载分配和能量吸收机制的影响是所要考虑的主要因素。本研究首先分析冲击载荷下模型的动态响应,在此基础上考察不规则Voronoi片板等几何因素对动态力学特性和能量分配的影响。
图4和图5分别为不同时刻规则片板模型与Voronoi片板模型受弹丸冲击时的应力云图剖视图。通过对比可以发现:在规则模型中,应力主要集中在弹丸冲击点及附近区域,远离冲击点区域的应力很小;在Voronoi模型中,应力分布区域更大,受力更加均匀。规则模型受冲击后很快就被冲破;而Voronoi模型的冲击模拟结果显示,其最大应力载荷小于规则模型,最终弹丸并未完全贯穿模型。
图6和图7分别为规则片板模型和Voronoi片板模型受弹丸冲击3.00 ms时应力云图的俯视图。从受弹丸冲击破坏情况来看:规则模型中脱黏现象主要集中在弹丸冲击点附近区域;而Voronoi模型的冲击影响区域更大,基本遍布整个模型。对于Voronoi模型,冲击区域发生变形时,其余片板受挤压后也发生了脱黏现象,吸收更多的冲击能量,从而有利于冲击能量的扩散与吸收,使模型的更多部分承担冲击负载,即增加承载区域,减小应力集中,更好地发挥能量共享机制。因此Voronoi片板模型抵抗冲击荷载的能力明显优于规则片板模型。
图8和图9分别给出了规则模型和不同分块Voronoi模型的损伤耗散能和塑性耗散能对比。在模型总尺寸相同的情况下,Voronoi模型的损伤耗散能远远高于规则片板模型,而塑性耗散能则小于规则片板模型,说明在冲击载荷作用下Voronoi模型抵抗冲击的能力优于规则片板模型。不同分块Voronoi模型的损伤耗散能和塑性耗散能差别不大,分块尺寸对Voronoi模型抗冲击性能的影响很小。
图10和图11分别给出了不同黏结层厚度(h)的Voronoi模型的损伤耗散能和塑性耗散能。可以看出,黏结层对损伤耗散能和塑性耗散能的影响很明显。黏结层越薄,模型整体吸能越大,越薄的黏结层使模型具有更高的抗弯刚度,抗冲击性能越强。由此可见,Voronoi模型的不规则性是仿贝壳珍珠层复合结构模型抗冲击性能的影响因素,对贝壳结构韧性的提升发挥着重要作用。
通过有限元数值模拟研究了仿贝壳珍珠层Voronoi模型在弹丸冲击载荷下的动态力学响应,得到如下主要结论。
(1)从冲击破坏受损情况来看,不规则Voronoi模型的冲击影响区域比规则模型更大,基本遍布整个模型。对于Voronoi模型,当冲击区域发生变形时,其余片板受挤压后发生脱黏现象,从而吸收更多的冲击能量,有利于冲击能量的扩散与吸收,让模型的更多部分承担冲击负载,即增加承载区域,并且减小应力集中,更好地发挥共享机制。规则模型的脱黏现象主要集中在弹丸冲击点及其附近区域。
(2)在模型总尺寸相同的情况下,Voronoi片板模型的损伤耗散能远远高于规则片板模型,而塑性耗散能则小于规则模型。在冲击载荷作用下,不规则Voronoi片板模型抵抗冲击的能力优于规则片板模型。
(3)分块尺寸对Voronoi模型抗冲击性能的影响很小,而黏结层对损伤耗散能和塑性耗散能的影响很明显,黏结层越薄,模型整体吸能越大,抗冲击性能越强。
鉴于目前制备具有Voronoi结构的金属/高分子材料复合实验模型具有一定困难,因此未对模拟结果进行实验验证。随着3D打印技术的进一步发展,可采用金属/高分子材料混合3D打印技术制备仿贝壳珍珠层Voronoi实验模型,届时即可对铝/乙烯基复合三维Voronoi模型的数值模拟工作进行验证,进而开展更深入的研究。
[1] |
STARR A, LEE J, NG H D. Detonation limits in rough walled tubes [J]. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 2015, 35(2): 1989–1996. doi: 10.1016/j.proci.2014.06.130
|
[2] |
ShCHELKIN K I, TROSHIN Y K. Non-stationary phenomena in the gaseous detonation front [J]. Combustion and Flame, 1963, 7: 143–151. doi: 10.1016/0010-2180(63)90172-X
|
[3] |
SHCHELKIN K I. Instability of combustion and detonation of gases [J]. Soviet Physics Uspekhi, 1966, 8(5): 780–797. doi: 10.1070/PU1966v008n05ABEH003038
|
[4] |
MOEN I O, DONATO M, KNYSTAUTAS R, et al. Flame acceleration due to turbulence produced by obstacles [J]. Combustion and Flame, 1980, 39(1): 21–32. doi: 10.1016/0010-2180(80)90003-6
|
[5] |
NA’INNA A M, PHYLAKTOU H N, ANDREWS G E. The acceleration of flames in tube explosions with two obstacles as a function of the obstacle separation distance [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2013, 26(6): 1597–1603. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2013.08.003
|
[6] |
FAIRWEATHER M, HARGRAVE G K, IBRAHIM S S, et al. Studies of premixed flame propagation in explosion tubes [J]. Combustion and Flame, 1999, 116(4): 504–518. doi: 10.1016/S0010-2180(98)00055-8
|
[7] |
YU M G, ZHENG K, CHU T K. Gas explosion flame propagation over various hollow-square obstacles [J]. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, 2016, 30: 221–227. doi: 10.1016/j.jngse.2016.02.009
|
[8] |
WEN X P, YU M G, JI W T, et al. Methane-air explosion characteristics with different obstacle configurations [J]. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology, 2015, 25(2): 213–218. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmst.2015.02.008
|
[9] |
WEN X P, YU M G, LIU Z C, et al. Large eddy simulation of methane-air deflagration in an obstructed chamber using different combustion models [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2012, 25(4): 730–738. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2012.04.008
|
[10] |
MASRI A R, IBRAHIM S S, NEHZAT N, et al. Experimental study of premixed flame propagation over various solid obstructions [J]. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 2000, 21(1/2/3): 109–106. doi: 10.1016/S0894-1777(99)00060-6
|
[11] |
JOHANSEN C T, CICCARELLI G. Modeling the initial flame acceleration in an obstructed channel using large eddy simulation [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2013, 26(4): 571–585. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2012.12.005
|
[12] |
JOHANSEN C T, CICCARELLI G. Visualization of the unburned gas flow field ahead of an accelerating flame in an obstructed square channel [J]. Combustion and Flame, 2009, 156(2): 405–416. doi: 10.1016/j.combustflame.2008.07.010
|
[13] |
CICCARELLI G, JOHANSEN R T, PARRAVANI R. The role of shock-flame interactions on flame acceleration in an obstacle laden channel [J]. Combustion and Flame, 2010, 157(11): 2125–2136. doi: 10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.05.003
|
[14] |
SALAMANDRA G D, BAZHENOVA T V, NABOKO I M. Formation of detonation wave during combustion of gas in combustion tube [J]. Symposium (International) on Combustion, 1958, 7(1): 851–855. doi: 10.1016/S0082-0784(58)80128-9
|
[15] |
ZHANG B, LIU H, LI Y C. The effect of instability of detonation on the propagation modes near the limits in typical combustible mixtures [J]. Fuel, 2019, 253: 305–310. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.05.006
|
[16] |
SULAIMAN S Z, KASMANI R M, MUSTAFA A, et al. Effect of obstacle on deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) in closed pipe or channel-an overview [J]. Jurnal Teknologi, 2013, 66(1): 49–52. doi: 10.11113/jt.v66.1326
|
[17] |
OGAWA T, GAMEZO V N, ORAN E S. Flame acceleration and transition to detonation in an array of square obstacles [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2013, 26(2): 355–362. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2011.12.009
|
[18] |
ZHANG B, LIU H, YAN B J. Investigation on the detonation propagation limit criterion for methane-oxygen mixtures in tubes with different scales [J]. Fuel, 2019, 239: 617–622. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.11.062
|
[19] |
BANG B H, AHN C S, KIM Y T, et al. Deflagration-to-detonation transition in pipes: the analytical theory [J]. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 2019, 66: 332–343. doi: 10.1016/j.apm.2018.09.023
|
[20] |
KIVERIN A D, YAKOVENKO I S. Estimation of critical conditions for deflagration-to-detonation transition in obstructed channels filled with gaseous mixtures [J]. Mathematical Modelling of Natural Phenomena, 2018, 13(6): 54. doi: 10.1051/mmnp/2018071
|
[21] |
COATES A M, MATHIAS D L, CANTWELL B J. Numerical investigation of the effect of obstacle shape on deflagration to detonation transition in a hydrogen-air mixture [J]. Combustion and Flame, 2019, 209: 278–290. doi: 10.1016/j.combustflame.2019.07.044
|
[22] |
LEAL C A, SANTIAGO G F. Do tree belts increase risk of explosion for LPG spheres? [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2004, 17(3): 217–224. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2004.02.003
|
[23] |
BAKKE J R, WINGERDEN K V, HOORELBEKE P, et al. A study on the effect of trees on gas explosions [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2010, 23(6): 878–884. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2010.08.007
|
[24] |
LI Q, LU S X, XU M J, et al. Comparison of flame propagation in a tube with a flexible/rigid obstacle [J]. Energy & Fuels, 2016, 30(10): 8720–8726. doi: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01594
|
[25] |
LI Q, CICCARELLI G, SUN X X, et al. Flame propagation across a flexible obstacle in a square cross-section channel [J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2018, 43(36): 17480–17491. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.07.077
|
[26] |
LI Q, SUN X X, WANG X, et al. Experimental study of flame propagation across flexible obstacles in a square cross-section channel [J]. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2019, 44(7): 3944–3952. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.12.085
|
[27] |
李权. 管道内障碍物对氢-空气预混火焰传播动力学影响研究 [D]. 合肥: 中国科学技术大学, 2019.
|
[28] |
YU M G, ZHENG K, ZHENG L G, et al. Effects of hydrogen addition on propagation characteristics of premixed methane/air flames [J]. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2015, 34: 1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.01.017
|
[29] |
YU S W, DUAN Y L, LONG F Y, et al. The influence of flexible/rigid obstacle on flame propagation and blast injuries risk in gas explosion [J]. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2023, 45(2): 4520–4536.
|
[1] | ZHU Yuan, JIANG Genzhu, WANG Xiaorong, GUO Hongzhan, SU Aocheng. Effect of High Temperature and High Pressure on the Explosion Characteristics of Ternary Premixed Fuel[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2025, 39(1): 011303. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20240818 |
[2] | JIN Youping, SHUAI Jian, WANG Wenxiang, XU Houjia. Leakage Characteristics of Flammable Gas in Confined Space and the Optimum Design of Explosion Venting: Numerical Simulation on Basis of the Major Accident[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2023, 37(6): 065201. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20230658 |
[3] | LIU Hu, LI Quan, LV Zhaowen, WANG Changjian, WEI Zhen, SUN Haocheng. Experimental Study on Re-initiation of 2H2+O2+nAr Premixed Gas by Cylindrical Obstacle[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2023, 37(5): 055202. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20230672 |
[4] | MI Hongfu, PENG Chong, ZHANG Xiaomei, WANG Yang, WANG Lili, YANG Xue, JIANG Xinsheng. Influence Factors of the Failure of Adjacent Pipeline under Explosion in Gas Compartment of Utility Tunnel[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2022, 36(3): 035202. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20210891 |
[5] | LIU Yang, LI Zhan, FANG Qin, WANG Senpei, CHEN Li. Inert Gas and Water Vapor Suppressing Overpressure and Its Oscillation of Gas Explosion in Long Straight Space[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2021, 35(5): 055201. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20200654 |
[6] | HE Yunlong, ZHANG Yuduo, YUAN Bihe, CHEN Xianfeng, CHEN Wentao, YANG Manjiang, WANG Xin, CHEN Gongqing. Fire and Explosion Suppression Performance of Luffa Sponge in Premixed Methane/Air Gas[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2021, 35(6): 065202. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20210778 |
[7] | DUAN Yulong, LI Yuanbing, YANG Yanling, LONG Fengying, YU Shuwei, HUANG Jun, BU Yunbing. Influence of Water Mist and Sliding Device on Explosion Characteristics of Premixed Methane/Air[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2021, 35(5): 055202. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20210718 |
[8] | LIU Yang, LI Zhan, ZHANG Yadong, CHEN Li, FANG Qin. Safety Evaluation of Gas Cloud Explosions in an Urban Distribution Stations Based on FLACS[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2021, 35(1): 015201. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20200595 |
[9] | LI Yuyan, JIANG Rongpei, LI Zhipeng, XU Sen, PAN Feng, XIE Lifeng. Detonation and Quenching Characteristics of Premixed C2H4/N2O[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2020, 34(4): 045201. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20190845 |
[10] | BAI Chunhua, ZHANG Chengjun, LIU Nan, YAO Ning. Experimental Study on the Effects of Ambient Temperature on Explosion Characteristics of Multiphase Mixtures[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2019, 33(4): 045202. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20180648 |
[11] | LIU Xiliang, LI Ye, WANG Xinyu, GURKALO Filip. Anti-Explosion Performance of Different Anti-Explosion Structures under Gas Explosion in Pipe Gallery[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2019, 33(4): 045204. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20180640 |
[12] | LIU Xiliang, LI Ye, WANG Xinyu, GUO Jiaqi. Dynamic Response Analysis of Underground Pipe Gallery under Gas Explosion[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2018, 32(6): 064104. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20180544 |
[13] | WANG Luqing, MA Honghao, WANG Bo, SHEN Zhaowu. Detonation Propagation in Hydrogen/Methane-Air Mixtures in a Round Tube Filled with Orifice Plates[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2018, 32(3): 035203. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20170687 |
[14] | PANG Lei, GAO Jian-Cun, LI Lei, MA Qiu-Ju, KANG Yong, MENG Qian-Qian. Influence of Gas Concentration on Flame Spread Range Generated from Indoor Deflagration of Natural Gas[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2014, 28(1): 55-60. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2014.01.009 |
[15] | WANG Jian, DUAN Ji-Yuan, ZHAO Ji-Bo, TAN Duo-Wang. Analysis of the Onset of Detonation in the DDT Process for Combustible Mixture[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2013, 27(3): 385-390. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2013.03.011 |
[16] | GUO Ze-Qing, JIANG Xiao-Hai, WANG Yang. Numerical Investigations on Acceleration of Projectile in Post-Effect Period[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2012, 26(5): 564-570. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2012.05.013 |
[17] | LI Cheng-Bing, WU Guo-Dong, JING Fu-Qian. Two-Dimensional Numerical Simulation of Explosion for Premixed CH4-O2-N2 Mixture[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2009, 23(5): 367-376 . doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2009.05.008 |
[18] | HAO Li, NING Jian-Guo, WANG Cheng. 2D Numerical Simulation of Explosive Damage Effect on Obstacles in Water[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2006, 20(1): 39-44 . doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2006.01.009 |
[19] | ZHAO Guo-Min, ZHANG Ruo-Qi, CHEN Gang, WANG Cheng-Hong. Investigations of Explosion Characteristics of Lead Shield Mild Detonating Fuse[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2001, 15(2): 91-96 . doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2001.02.003 |
[20] | CHAO Gui-Tong, YU Yu-Hua, WU Shan-Nan, QU Yong-De. The Equation of State for Gun Propellant Gases under High Pressure[J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 1988, 2(3): 227-236 . doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.1988.03.005 |
Material | ρ/(kg·m−3) | ν | E/GPa |
Aluminum | 2750 | 0.3 | 72 |
t0n/MPa | t0s/MPa | t0t/MPa | G0n/(kJ·m−2) | G0s/(kJ·m−2) | G0t/(kJ·m−2) | ρ/(kg·m−3) | Es/GPa | Et/GPa |
80 | 80 | 80 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 850 | 4 | 1.5 |