Progress in Dynamic Responses and Microstructure Evolution of the Additive Manufactured Alloys under Impact Load
-
摘要: 作为近20年来快速发展的制造技术，增材制造技术能够快速、直接制造形状复杂的零件，在工业领域得到越来越多的应用。在实际应用中，这些增材制造的零部件经常承受高速冲击载荷作用，因此其动态承载能力及破坏失效特征是人们关注的焦点，也给增材制造技术及其产品在国防军事、武器装备等领域的应用带来巨大挑战。首先综述增材制造技术的原理和特点；然后着重介绍在高速冲击等极端情况下增材制造金属零部件的宏/微观力学响应特征，探讨新的制造方法带来的金属材料动态性能的新变化；最后展望增材制造技术及产品在国防军事、武器装备等领域的发展前景。Abstract: As a rapidly developing technology in the past two decades, additive manufacturing has been widely used in industries due to its high-efficiently in manufacture, particularly for the components with complex geometry. Since these components usually subjected to high-speed impact in application, the issue of load-bearing capacity and failure characteristics becomes a major concern, also causes great challenges for the application of laser additive manufacturing technology and product development in national defense, military and weapons. In this study, the technical principles and characteristics of additive manufacturing was summarized, and then the macro/micro mechanical response of additive manufactured metallic components subjected to high-speed impact was introduced emphatically. The changes induced by the new manufacturing techniques in dynamic performance of metallic materials were explored. Lastly, the potential prospects of additive manufacturing techniques as well as the products were forecast in the field of national defense and military weapons.
-
炸药ZND模型认为爆轰波阵面有一定厚度，由极薄的前导冲击波和一定厚度的后继化学反应区组成，化学反应在反应区内进行并完成，冲击波和化学反应区以同一速度沿爆炸物向前传播。由于化学电离和热电离，爆轰波阵面处和化学反应区中会生成带电离子，这为爆电耦合效应（Explosion-electricity coupling，EEC）提供了一个基本条件。在炸药爆炸的过程中，给炸药的反应区中注入一定的外置电能，当大电流从导电的反应区流过时，将有一部分能量沉积到炸药的反应区中，与炸药本身的爆炸能量进行耦合，这部分能量可能通过焦耳加热，也可能通过更复杂的耦合形式来补充爆轰波能量，提升炸药输出威力。
1979年，Toton[1]研究了均匀的电场和磁场对凝聚炸药定常爆轰的影响，选取TNT作为凝聚炸药的代表，计算了焦耳加热对爆速和爆压的预期增益，理论上可以实现爆压最大增加12%和爆速增加6%。1999年，Lee等[2]研究了通过电能输入来提高炸药爆轰性能的可能性，向引爆的炸药提供5 kJ的电能，实验结果表明，炸药爆速平均提高2.7%～3.2%，局部提高8.2%～10.4%。2013年，Piehler等[3]将储存的电能从160 kJ（5.5 kV）电容器组转移到爆炸反应爆轰前沿后面的导电区，实验装置的爆炸部分由两块铜板（50.00 cm × 2.54 cm × 1.27 cm）组成，铜板之间由不同厚度的PrimaSheet-1000炸药层隔开，初步研究结果表明，在向反应区输入电能时，0.1 cm厚炸药的爆速提高了约4.2%，0.2 cm厚炸药的爆速提高了约2.6%。
上述研究均表明，外置电能的注入能够提升炸药的爆轰参数，证实了爆电耦合效应的可行性，但上述研究均以炸药爆速单一参量作为表征手段，且并未对炸药爆电耦合过程中的电学性能及反应过程进行解释。为此，本研究以平板塑性炸药为研究对象，设计了平板炸药的装药装置，使用自主组建的高能量脉冲功率电源系统，通过匹配炸药爆炸与脉冲电源放电时间使得爆电耦合能量最大化，新增以光子多普勒测速技术（Photonic Doppler velocimetry，PDV）测量的爆压作为爆电耦合增益的主要表征参量来进行爆电耦合研究。
1. 爆电耦合效应验证实验
1.1 样品与试验装置
RDX塑性炸药为自制炸药，主要成分是质量分数为85%的黑索金和10%的天然橡胶。天然橡胶的添加使该塑性炸药成型晾干之后能够像橡皮一样具有很好的延展性，可以直接用刀片裁成试验需要的形状，在试验过程中受到挤压也不会断裂，非常适合爆电耦合效应研究。制作的塑性炸药如图1(a)所示，厚度为3 mm，用刀片裁切为如图1(b)所示的炸药条，尺寸为70 mm × 8 mm × 3 mm。
图2为爆电耦合试验示意图，其中LP为回路电感，RP为回路电阻。脉冲功率电源搭配两个2.5 mF的电容，充电电压为3 kV，能够提供22.5 kJ的能量，炸药爆炸开关（Explosive opening switch, EOS）为一设计好的导电铜箔，固定在铜电极两端，用于确保回路电流能够上升到峰值。当回路电流到达峰值时，电雷管炸断EOS开关并起爆炸药，当原本的电流回路被切断时，电流必然会寻找另一条电阻低的通路，此时炸药爆轰反应区中由于高导电率等离子体的存在，电流可以从狭小的反应区中流过，通过焦耳加热及其他耦合方式使电能耦合在反应区内，增大反应区粒子速度。泄放电阻和续流二极管用于保护电路，半导体开关用延迟触发装置通过光纤触发。
试验样品安装在如图3所示的工装中。工装整体由左右两块铜极与支撑块组成，炸药以长条片状夹在两铜极间，EOS开关用螺栓固定在两铜极的输入端，保证雷管在起爆炸药的同时可以炸断EOS开关。铜极侧面设计了4个
∅ 6 mm的通孔和一个M10的螺纹孔，使用M6的尼龙螺纹杆穿过通孔来连接支撑块和两铜极，螺纹孔用于连接回路电极。输出端设计两个M3的内螺纹孔，用于固定LiF支撑工装。1.2 实验过程
1.2.1 脉冲功率装置的放电规律
时间匹配是试验的关键点，要求在回路电流达到峰值时，雷管起爆炸药，切断EOS开关，从而将能量注入反应区中。试验时，因为续流二极管的存在，电流不会在回路中振荡，而是缓慢下降直至降为零。所以，需要确定回路电流达到电流峰值的时刻，才能在该时刻断开EOS开关、起爆炸药。同时，当炸药在回路电流达到峰值时刻起爆能保证有更多能量耦合到爆炸产物中，使爆电耦合效应达到最大化。为了减小时间匹配上的难度并保护某些回路元器件，在回路中增加了22 μH的电感。虽然电感的加入会降低回路中的峰值电流，但是可以显著延长回路放电时间，增大回路周期。
将脉冲功率装置各元器件按照电路图连接，电缆线长度等条件保持与后续试验一致，测试端为不带雷管的实验工装，使用Rogowski线圈准确记录回路中的电流信号。充电电源电压以2000 V为起点，以500 V为梯度进行回路短路电流测试，试验所测的短路放电电流曲线如图4所示，ΔT为放电周期。在回路负载确定的情况下（试验时加入EOS开关，约等于短路放电），回路1/4放电周期基本固定在595 μs左右。因此，在综合考虑雷管的作用时间和回路脉冲峰值时间之后，同步触发器的通道1设置为雷管触发回路，延迟时间为0 μs，通道2设置为回路电容放电半导体开关，延迟时间为1000
μs ，通道3设置为PDV采集信号，延迟时间为1600μs ，这样可以保证在雷管输出时回路中的电流已经达到或者接近电流峰值，且PDV光纤也能准确地采集到粒子速度曲线。1.2.2 炸药爆电耦合的爆速与爆压增益
试验以爆速和爆压作为主要表征参量来研究爆电耦合对炸药输出性能的影响，将不加电和加电两者测量的数据进行对比。其中爆速采用爆速仪测量，爆压则通过PDV测量炸药输出端界面粒子速度进而计算求得。
爆速仪测速装置原理：用直流电源起爆电雷管，电雷管起爆测试炸药，炸药开始爆轰，处在高温高压状态的炸药波阵面处的产物瞬间被电离成负离子和正离子；当炸药波阵面到达第1根探针时，探针导通，爆速仪记录下探针导通的时刻，计时开始；波阵面到达第2根探针时，探针同样输出一个电信号给爆速仪，此时计时结束；通过记录爆轰波经过两个波阵面的时间间隔Δt，根据放置探针的长度L，智能爆速仪可自行求解出所测炸药爆速D，并将其输出到显示屏上。
PDV测速技术的原理是基于物体运动的光学多普勒效应。将激光探头表面的反射光作为参考光，飞片表面的反射光作为信号光，参考光和信号光发生干涉后，利用探测器检测参考光和信号光的差拍干涉信号，并实现光信号到电信号的转换，电信号再经激光放大器放大，通过示波器采集，最后通过快速傅里叶变换处理，就能获得界面粒子的速度历程[4]。PDV是全光纤系统，通过参考光和反射光的频差获得速度信息，速度测量上限只受数字示波器的频带宽度限制，具有信噪比高、体积小和系统稳定等优点。图5为PDV作用原理示意图。
基于PDV测速技术，将界面粒子速度随时间的变化与ZND爆轰模型中的压力分布假设相对应，将速度曲线中出现的速率变化折点看作爆轰波结构中的Chapman-Jouguet（C-J）点，因此只要测出炸药爆轰产物界面粒子速度曲线，就可以得出爆轰反应结束时间和爆轰反应区宽度，进而求出C-J点和von Neumann（VN）峰压力[5-6]。相比于其他方法，该方法的物理过程比较明确，速度分辨率和时间分辨率均较高。
实验中，为了在某一加载压力下保持对样品较长的观测时间，通常在样品后端面粘贴透明窗口材料，形成加窗激光干涉测速系统。本试验使用的是LiF单晶窗口，在冲击波作用下，受窗口材料折射率变化的影响，加窗激光干涉测速系统的实测界面粒子速度不再等于真实的粒子速度，需要对窗口速度进行修正，真实的界面粒子速度与实测界面粒子速度之间的修正关系为[7]
us=uw1.2678 (1) 式中：us为真实粒子速度，uw为实测粒子速度。
界面粒子速度法的主要试验装置包括：爆电耦合装置、LiF玻璃、三维光学调控平台、激光干涉测速仪以及示波器。将表面镀了1
μm 厚铝膜的LiF玻璃嵌入支撑板的凹槽中，镀铝膜的一侧紧贴炸药，用螺丝与铜极紧固，光纤固定在三维可调光学平台上，调整光纤光斑使其正对支撑块上面的输出孔。图6为界面粒子速度测量示意图。
图 6 界面粒子速度测量示意图Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the interface particle velocity measurement在进行爆电耦合试验时，由于爆速和爆压两者的测量并不会互相影响，所以可以同时测量两个参量。图7为试验过程的完整示意图。同步触发器先触发雷管起爆装置，1000
μs 延迟后再触发脉冲回路开关，此时回路电流开始上升，1600μs 延迟左右回路电流达到峰值，雷管点火起爆炸药并炸断EOS开关，随着炸药爆轰的传播，依次触发爆速仪的探针1和探针2，爆速仪测出爆速，随后爆轰波从末端输出，PDV采集到紧贴在炸药输出端的Al膜运动速度，等效为输出端界面粒子速度。2. 结果与讨论
2.1 爆速增益与电学特性
塑性炸药的初始爆速v0为6364 m/s，比黑索金炸药的爆速8498 m/s低很多。其原因主要有以下两点：(1) 天然橡胶和添加剂的加入降低了黑索金炸药的质量比；(2) 该塑性炸药的密度仅为1.30 g/cm3，密度过小注定其爆速不会太高。为此，需要在相同的条件下进行加电与不加电实验，才能够最准确地表征爆电耦合效应的影响。
爆速仪测量数据如表1所示。由表1可知，在爆电耦合条件下，塑性炸药爆速vEEC增加了227 m/s，达到6591 m/s，增幅3.57%。由此可见，在爆电耦合条件下，爆速有一定的增长。从导电角度分析，大部分电能是从导电性较好的反应区流过，一小部分从爆轰产物区流过，此外还有极小部分通过击穿空气放电，这部分能量没有提升炸药的性能。假设爆轰产物区和击穿空气放电的能量占比较小，大部分电能沉积到炸药的冲击波阵面和化学反应区，则可以将整个反应时间内的累积电能作为沉积总电能进行计算。
表 1 爆电耦合下塑性炸药的爆速增益Table 1. Detonation velocity gain of the plastic explosive under EECρ0/(g·cm−3) Thickness/mm v0/(m·s−1) vEEC/(m·s−1) Increment/(m·s−1) Percentage/% 1.30 3.00 6364 6591 227 3.57 使用Rogowski线圈和电压探头测量炸药两端的电流和电压参数，得到爆电耦合过程中回路电流和电压曲线，如图8所示。从爆电耦合电流和电压曲线可以看出：回路开关在−600.00 μs打开，电流开始上升。−79.61 μs时，电压曲线出现抖动，电压开始逐渐上升，这是因为雷管开始炸断EOS开关，铜箔电阻不断增大。−64.61 μs时，EOS开关被完全炸断，电压曲线出现一个小峰值，电雷管引爆塑性炸药开始绝热压缩并发生化学反应，电流从导电性能良好的EOS开关转移到爆轰反应区，回路电流出现抖动并逐渐下降，此时为爆轰开始点，之后电阻继续增大，电压曲线上升。−44.81 μs时，爆轰波成长至稳定，电压曲线出现峰值并下降。−22.69 μs时，电流曲线出现另一个抖动，电压曲线陡然下降，此为反应结束点，整个过程的持续时间为41.92 μs，之后剩下的电流通过击穿空气释放电能。根据之前设置的延迟时间计算可得，雷管点火时间为1535.39 μs，电流上升了535.39 μs，峰值电流为25.97 kA。
研究爆电耦合效应时，把爆轰波视为一个带有化学反应和注入了额外电能的冲击波处理，通过3个守恒方程推导出额外电能注入时爆速的计算公式
D2C-J=2(k2−1)(Q″+Ee) (2) 式中：DC-J为炸药爆速，单位m/s；k为多方指数，由于不加电和加电的试验条件一致，故可以通过不加电爆速试验求出多方指数，代入爆电耦合爆速计算公式中；
Q″ 为炸药的爆热，单位J/g，塑性炸药为自制炸药，根据经验公式可计算出该塑性炸药的爆热为5020.96 J/g；Ee为单位质量炸药所获得的电能，单位J/g，将电流和电压曲线的乘积对反应时间进行积分，所得能量除以炸药质量可得Ee，即Ee=1m∫tbtaUIdt (3) 式中：ta为整个反应的开始时间，单位
μs ；tb为整个反应的结束时间，单位μs ；U为对应时刻的电压，单位V；I为对应时刻的电流，单位A；m为炸药质量，单位g。经过计算，塑性炸药经过爆电耦合效应后，预测爆速为6577.62 m/s，与实测爆速6591 m/s比较，相对误差仅为0.2%。反应过程中，沉积在反应区的能量为711.32 J，能量利用率仅为3.16%，说明爆电耦合效应研究仍有极大的进步空间。
2.2 爆压增益
PDV示波器的带宽为33 GHz，采样率为80 GSa/s，利用PDV测量样品-LiF窗口界面粒子速度，得到原始数据，经过傅里叶变换之后，得到未修正粒子速度原始图。对粒子速度原始图进行描点操作，随后用式(1)进行修正，得到修正后的界面粒子速度-时间曲线，如图9所示。由图9可知，粒子速度-时间曲线上存在一个明显的拐点（C-J点），这个拐点将曲线分成两部分，对应ZND模型中的爆轰反应区和Taylor膨胀区。为了确定该点的具体位置，对光滑后的界面粒子速度进行一阶求导，如图10所示。dus/dt曲线在初始阶段上升较快，对应炸药的快反应阶段，炸药化学反应的能量释放主要发生在这一阶段。随后dus/dt曲线缓慢下降，该过程对应炸药的慢反应阶段。炸药化学反应结束后，即C-J点之后，爆轰产物发生膨胀，受稀疏波的影响，界面粒子速度缓慢下降，对应的界面粒子速度一阶导数为接近于零的定值，通过读取dus/dt曲线上的拐点可以确定C-J点。
图 10 速度-时间曲线的一阶微分Figure 10. First-order differential diagrams of the velocity-time curve由平板装药的界面粒子速度-时间曲线（图9）可得：先导冲击波过后，粒子速度出现突跃，随后化学反应开始，界面粒子速度经历两个阶段：第1阶段，粒子速度下降较快，时间在100 ns以内，为快速化学反应阶段；第2阶段，粒子速度变化较平稳，持续时间较长，对应小颗粒固相碳凝聚过程。反应前期粒子速度均下降较快，这是因为炸药太薄，稀疏波很快反射回来，导致冲击波下降速度变快。
当试验确定了塑性炸药的VN峰值粒子速度uVN和C-J点的粒子速度uC-J之后，则可以利用冲击波阻抗匹配关系计算炸药反应区内的压力[8-9]
p=12us[ρm0(C0+λus)+ρ0DC-J] (4) 式中：p为炸药界面与窗口处的压力，单位GPa；us为界面粒子速度，单位km/s；
ρ m0为LiF窗口的初始密度，单位g/cm3；C0和λ 为LiF窗口的冲击绝热线常数；ρ 0为炸药的初始密度，单位g/cm3；DC-J的单位为km/s；ρ m0为LiF窗口材料的初始密度，为2.641 g/cm3，C0 =（5.176 ± 0.023）km/s，λ = 1.353 ± 0.010。设a为炸药反应区宽度（单位mm），
τ 为化学反应持续时间（单位μs ），则a=∫τ0(DC-J−us)dt (5) 由图9可以得到VN峰值点时刻与C-J点时刻，以此求出炸药反应区持续时间，之后根据式(4)计算各炸药的VN峰值压力pVN与C-J点压力pC-J，再根据式(5)确定炸药化学反应区宽度[10-11]，得到塑性炸药平板装药在爆电耦合作用下的爆压增益
δpVN 和δpC-J ，如表2所示。表 2 塑性炸药爆电耦合效应爆压增益情况Table 2. Detonation pressure gain of the plastic explosive under EECLoading conditions uVN/(m·s−1) uC-J/(m·s−1) pVN/GPa pC-J/GPa τ/μs a/mm δpVN/% δpC-J/% No power 1990.70 967.63 28.98 12.32 0.1134 0.58 10.28 2.19 Power up 2135.57 976.11 31.96 12.59 0.1138 0.61 由表2可知，爆电耦合效应对塑性炸药的压力参数有一定的提升作用，VN峰值点压力提升了10.28%，C-J点压力提升了2.19%，VN峰值点的压力增益大于C-J点压力增益。根据分析，电能沉积的主要区域为后续的化学反应区，但是沉积在化学反应区的电能并不能导致塑性炸药前导冲击波处VN峰值压力的提升，因此VN峰值处压力的提升是由于外部电场的影响，并且外电场对炸药爆压的影响大于注入反应区中电能的影响。研究表明，随着外电场的增强，炸药的引发键键长变短，解离能增加[12-13]。另外，外电场的加入，也在一定程度上增加了爆速，这也解释了为什么用沉积能量计算出来的炸药爆速小于实际爆速。
3. 结 论
针对电能与炸药爆炸的化学能结合问题，设计、加工、组装了一系列完整的爆电耦合效应加载及测试装置，使用爆速仪测量塑性炸药爆速，用PDV测速系统测量塑性炸药表面粒子速度，从典型的爆速和爆压参数对塑性炸药进行爆电耦合效应评估，得出以下结论。
(1) 试验结果表明，爆电耦合作用使塑性炸药的爆速提高了3.57%，VN峰值压力提高了10.28%，C-J压力提高了2.19%。
(2) 通过电流和电压曲线的变化规律，定性地分析了爆电耦合效应的全过程，并将沉积的电能代入推导的爆速计算公式，对爆电耦合效应产生的爆速增益进行了预测。经验证，该计算公式的计算误差仅为0.2%，对于爆电耦合效应计算具有一定的参考价值。
(3) 分析了塑性炸药爆电耦合效应的可能作用机理，解释了炸药爆速增长和爆压增长的主要原因，其中爆速增长的主要影响因素为反应区中注入的电能。VN峰值压力的增长主要是外电场的影响，在炸药爆炸之前，两个高压电极之间的外部电场缩短了关键化学键的结合长度，从而增大了炸药输出能量。
感谢南京理工大学钱华研究员和李宛桐同学提供了RDX塑性炸药，感谢西安近代化学研究所宋浦研究员和南京理工大学韩志伟副研究员对研究工作的指导。
-
图 4 SLM成型Ti-6Al-4V钛合金的反极图及晶粒尺寸统计：(a)和(d)为原始材料，(b)和(e)为冲击加载后的样品，(c)和(f)为冲击加载后样品的放大图
Figure 4. Inverse pole figures and grain size of SLM Ti-6Al-4V alloy ((a) and (d): original, (b) and (e): after impacting, (c) and (f): amplified Fig.4(b))
图 11 通过不同的波长组合和样品到探测器的距离获得原始样品(a)和变形样品(b)的暗场响应，以及加载后的相分布(c)（绿色代表马氏体，红色代表奥氏体）[82]
Figure 11. Measured data (points) and theoretical models (lines) assuming a random two phase medium model for the as-built (a) and deformed (b) samples, (c) phase image after impacting (Red represents austenitic phase, and green represents martensitic phase.)[82]
-
[1] SHIPLEY H, MCDONNELL D, CULLETON M, et al. Optimisation of process parameters to address fundamental challenges during selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V: a review [J]. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2018, 128: 1–20. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2018.01.003 [2] HAN Q Q, SETCHI R, EVANS S L. Synthesis and characterisation of advanced ball-milled Al-Al2O3 nanocomposites for selective laser melting [J]. Powder Technology, 2016, 297: 183–192. doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2016.04.015 [3] LIN K J, YUAN L H, GU D D. Influence of laser parameters and complex structural features on the bio-inspired complex thin-wall structures fabricated by selective laser melting [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2019, 267: 34–43. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.12.004 [4] LAKHDAR Y, TUCK C, BINNER J, et al. Additive manufacturing of advanced ceramic materials [J]. Progress in Materials Science, 2021, 116: 100736. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2020.100736 [5] WU H, FAHY W P, KIM S, et al. Recent developments in polymers/polymer nanocomposites for additive manufacturing [J]. Progress in Materials Science, 2020, 111: 100638. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2020.100638 [6] SONG C H, WANG A M, WU Z J, et al. The design and manufacturing of a titanium alloy beak for Grus japonensis using additive manufacturing [J]. Materials & Design, 2017, 117: 410–416. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.11.092 [7] CAI C, TEY W S, CHEN J Y, et al. Comparative study on 3D printing of polyamide 12 by selective laser sintering and multi jet fusion [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2021, 288: 116882. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116882 [8] PUTRA N E, LEEFLANG M A, MINNEBOO M, et al. Extrusion-based 3D printed biodegradable porous iron [J]. Acta Biomaterialia, 2021, 121: 741–756. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.11.022 [9] BISWAS M C, CHAKRABORTY S, BHATTACHARJEE A, et al. 4D printing of shape memory materials for textiles: mechanism, mathematical modeling, and challenges [J]. Advanced Function Materials, 2021, 31(19): 2100257. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202100257 [10] ZHANG C, CAI D P, LIAO P, et al. 4D Printing of shape-memory polymeric scaffolds for adaptive biomedical implantation [J]. Acta Biomaterialia, 2021, 122(1): 101–110. [11] WANG J W, LUO Q, WANG H M, et al. Microstructure characteristics and failure mechanisms of Ti-48Al-2Nb-2Cr titanium aluminide intermetallic alloy fabricated by directed energy deposition technique [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 32: 101007. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2019.101007 [12] LI J Q, LIN X, YANG Y, et al. Distinction in electrochemical behaviour of Ti6Al4V alloy produced by direct energy deposition and forging [J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2021, 860: 157912. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.157912 [13] TANVIR A N M, AHSAN M R U, SEO G, et al. Phase stability and mechanical properties of wire+arc additively manufactured H13 tool steel at elevated temperatures [J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2021, 67: 80–94. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2020.04.085 [14] VRANCKEN B, THIJS L, KRUTH J P, et al. Heat treatment of Ti6Al4V produced by selective laser melting: microstructure and mechanical properties [J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2012, 541: 177–185. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.07.022 [15] ZHANG J L, SONG B, WEI Q S, et al. A review of selective laser melting of aluminum alloys: processing, microstructure, property and developing trends [J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2109, 35(2): 270–284. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2018.09.004 [16] ZHAO D C, LIN F. Dual-detector electronic monitoring of electron beam selective melting [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2021, 289: 116935. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116935 [17] LIU Y, PANG Z C, LI M, et al. Investigation into the dynamic mechanical properties of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy at high strain rate tensile loading [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2019, 745: 440–449. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2019.01.010 [18] ZHENG C, WANG F C, CHENG X W, et al. Effect of microstructures on ballistic impact property of Ti-6Al-4V targets [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2014, 608: 53–62. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2014.04.032 [19] YANG B H, CAO Z Q, CHANG Z P, et al. The effect of the reflected shock wave on the foam material [J]. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 2021, 149: 103773. doi: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2020.103773 [20] WALSH J M, CHRISTIAN R H. Equation of state of metals from shock wave measurements [J]. Physical Review, 1955, 97(6): 1544–1556. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.97.1544 [21] WALSH J M, RICE M H, MCQUEEN R G, et al. Shock-wave compressions of twenty-seven metals: equations of state of metals [J]. Physical Review, 1957, 108(2): 196–216. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.108.196 [22] WANG Y G, HE H L, WANG L L, et al. Time-resolved dynamic tensile spall of pure aluminum under laser irradiation [J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 2006, 100(3): 033511. doi: 10.1063/1.2215074 [23] XIAO L J, SONG W D. Additively-manufactured functionally graded Ti-6Al-4V lattice structures with high strength under static and dynamic loading: experiments [J]. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 2018, 111: 255–272. doi: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2017.09.018 [24] KHOSRAVANI M R, WEINBERG K. A review on split Hopkinson bar experiments on the dynamic characterisation of concrete [J]. Construction and Building Materials, 2018, 190: 1264–1283. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.187 [25] LI K B, LI X J, WANG X H, et al. A simple electrometric method for parametric determination of Jones-Wilkins-Lee equation of state from underwater explosion test [J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 2018, 124(21): 215906. doi: 10.1063/1.5049497 [26] JONES D R, FENSIN S J, NDEFRU B G, et al. Spall fracture in additive manufactured tantalum [J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 2018, 124(22): 225902. doi: 10.1063/1.5063930 [27] LU G X, TRDAN U, ZHANG Y K, et al. The distribution regularity of residual stress on a metal surface after laser shock marking [J]. Mechanics of Materials, 2020, 143: 103310. doi: 10.1016/j.mechmat.2020.103310 [28] DWAIKAT M B, KODUR V K R. Hydrothermal model for predicting fire-induced spalling in concrete structural systems [J]. Fire Safety Journal, 2009, 44(3): 425–434. doi: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2008.09.001 [29] LI K B, LI X J, YAN H H, et al. A velocity probe-based method for continuous detonation and shock measurement in near-field underwater explosion [J]. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2017, 88(12): 123905. doi: 10.1063/1.4999144 [30] JONES D R, FENSIN S J, MORROW B M, et al. Shock recompaction of spall damage [J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 2020, 127(24): 245901. doi: 10.1063/5.0011337 [31] LI C, LI B, HUANG J Y, et al. Spall damage of a mild carbon steel: effects of peak stress, strain rate and pulse duration [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2016, 660: 139–147. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2016.02.080 [32] THOMPSON S M, ASPIN Z S, SHAMSAEI N, et al. Additive manufacturing of heat exchangers: a case study on a multi-layered Ti-6Al-4V oscillating heat pipe [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2015, 8: 163–174. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2015.09.003 [33] HAUBRICH J, GUSSONE J, BARRIOBERO-VILA P, et al. The role of lattice defects, element partitioning and intrinsic heat effects on the microstructure in selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V [J]. Acta Materialia, 2019, 167: 136–148. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2019.01.039 [34] LI Z, LI J, LIU J, et al. Structure and formation mechanism of α/α interface in laser melting deposited α+β titanium alloy [J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016, 657: 278–285. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.09.236 [35] TAN H, GUO M L, CLARE A T, et al. Microstructure and properties of Ti-6Al-4V fabricated by low-power pulsed laser directed energy deposition [J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2019, 35(9): 2027–2037. doi: 10.1016/J.JMST.2019.05.008 [36] BISWAS N, DING J L, BALLA V K, et al. Deformation and fracture behavior of laser processed dense and porous Ti6Al4V alloy under static and dynamic loading [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2012, 549: 213–221. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2012.04.036 [37] 傅华, 李涛, 吴廷烈, 等. 冲击作用下PBX炸药预制孔洞塌陷过程的实验探索 [J]. 高压物理学报, 2015, 29(4): 268–272. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2015.04.005FU H, LI T, WU T L, et al. Experiment of cavity collapse process in plastic-bonded explosives under shock loading [J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2015, 29(4): 268–272. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2015.04.005 [38] LIU Y, XU H Z, ZHU L, et al. Investigation into the microstructure and dynamic compressive properties of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy with different heating treatments [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2021, 805: 140561. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.140561 [39] MOHAMMADHOSSEINI A, MASOOD S H, FRASER D, et al. Dynamic compressive behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V alloy processed by electron beam melting under high strain rate loading [J]. Advanced in Manufacturing, 2015, 3(3): 232–243. doi: 10.1007/s40436-015-0119-0 [40] ALAGHMANDFARD R, CHALASANI D, HADADZADEH A, et al. Dynamic compressive response of electron beam melted Ti-6Al-4V under elevated strain rates: microstructure and constitutive models [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 35: 101347. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101347 [41] ALAGHMANDFARD R, DHARMENDRA D, ODESHI A G, et al. Dynamic mechanical properties and failure characteristics of electron beam melted Ti-6Al-4V under high strain rate impact loadings [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2020, 793: 139794. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.139794 [42] LI P H, GUO W G, HUANG W D, et al. Thermomechanical response of 3D laser-deposited Ti-6Al-4V alloy over a wide range of strain rates and temperatures [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2015, 647: 34–42. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2015.08.043 [43] BROWN A D, AMERI A H, GREGG A, et al. Dynamic mechanical response of additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V [C]//AIPConference Proceedings, 2018, 1979: 070008. [44] JONES D R, FENSIN S J, DIPPO O, et al. Spall fracture in additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V [J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 2016, 120(13): 135902. doi: 10.1063/1.4963279 [45] RODRIGUEZ O L, ALLISON P G, WHITTINGTON W R, et al. Strain rate effect on the tension and compression stress-state asymmetry for electron beam additive manufactured Ti6Al4V [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2018, 713: 125–133. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2017.12.062 [46] YANG D K, CIZEK P, HODGSON P D, et al. Microstructure evolution and nanograin formation during shear localization in cold-rolled titanium [J]. Acta Materialia, 2010, 58(13): 4536–4548. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2010.05.007 [47] YANG H L, WANG D D, ZHU X J, et al. Dynamic compression-induced twins and martensite and their combined effects on the adiabatic shear behavior in a Ti-8.5Cr-1.5Sn alloy [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2019, 759: 203–209. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2019.05.040 [48] MING W W, CHEN J, AN Q L, et al. Dynamic mechanical properties and machinability characteristics of selective laser melted and forged Ti6Al4V [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2019, 271: 284–292. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.04.015 [49] SHI G Q, JIN S, XUE G, et al. A conducting polymer film stronger than aluminum [J]. Science, 1995, 267(5200): 994–996. doi: 10.1126/science.267.5200.994 [50] ZARETSKY E, STERN A, FRAGE N. Dynamic response of AlSi10Mg alloy fabricated by selective laser melting [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2017, 688: 364–370. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2017.02.004 [51] HADADZADEH A, AMIRKHIZ S B, ODESHI A, et al. Dynamic loading of direct metal laser sintered AlSi10Mg alloy: strengthening behavior in different building directions [J]. Materials & Design, 2018, 159: 201–211. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2018.08.045 [52] NUREL B, NAHMANY M, FRAGE N, et al. Split Hopkinson pressure bar tests for investigating dynamic properties of additively manufactured AlSi10Mg alloy by selective laser melting [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2018, 22: 823–833. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.001 [53] PONNUSAM P, MASOOD S H, RUAN D, et al. Dynamic compressive behaviour of selective laser melted AlSi12 alloy: effect of elevated temperature and heat treatment [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 36: 101614. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101614 [54] PONNUSAM P, MASOOD S H, RUAN D, et al. High strain rate dynamic behaviour of AlSi12 alloy processed by selective laser melting [J]. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2018, 97(1): 1023–1035. doi: 10.1007/S00170-018-1873-5 [55] ASGARI H, ODESHI A, HOSSEINKHANI K, et al. On dynamic mechanical behavior of additively manufactured AlSi10Mg_200C [J]. Materials Letters, 2018, 211: 187–190. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2017.10.001 [56] BAXTER C, CYR E, ODESHI A, et al. Constitutive models for the dynamic behaviour of direct metal laser sintered AlSi10Mg_200C under high strain rate shock loading [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2018, 731: 296–308. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2018.06.040 [57] LAURENÇON M, RESSÉGUIER T, LOISON D, et al. Effects of additive manufacturing on the dynamic response of AlSi10Mg to laser shock loading [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2019, 748: 407–417. [58] LAURENÇON M, RESSÉGUIER T, LOISON D, et al. Dynamic behaviour and spall fracture of laser shock-loaded AlSi10Mg alloy obtained by selective laser melting [J]. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2020, 2272(1): 100018. [59] TIAMIYU A A, BASU R, ODESHI A G, et al. Plastic deformation in relation to microstructure and texture evolution in AA 2017-T451 and AA 2624-T351 aluminum alloys under dynamic impact loading [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2015, 636: 379–388. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2015.03.113 [60] GU D D, MEINERS W, WISSENBACH K, et al. Laser additive manufacturing of metallic components: materials, processes and mechanisms [J]. International Materials Review, 2012, 57(2): 133–164. doi: 10.1179/1743280411Y.0000000014 [61] FELDHAUSEN T, RAGHAVAN N, SALEEBY K, et al. Mechanical properties and microstructure of 316L stainless steel produced by hybrid manufacturing [J]. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2021, 290: 116970. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116970 [62] WISE J L, ADAMS D P, NISHIDA E E, et al. Comparative shock response of additively manufactured versus conventionally wrought 304L stainless steel [J]. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2017, 1793: 100015. [63] POKHAREL R, PATRA A, BROWN D W, et al. An analysis of phase stresses in additively manufactured 304L stainless steel using neutron diffraction measurements and crystal plasticity finite element simulations [J]. International Journal of Plasticity, 2019, 121: 201–217. doi: 10.1016/j.ijplas.2019.06.005 [64] SONG B, NISHIDA E, SANBORN B, et al. Compressive and tensile stress-strain responses of additively manufactured (AM) 304L stainless steel at high strain rates [J]. Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials, 2017, 3(3): 412–425. doi: 10.1007/s40870-017-0122-6 [65] WANG X F, LIU Y, SHI T Y, et al. Strain rate dependence of mechanical property in a selective laser melted 17-4 PH stainless steel with different states [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2020, 792: 139776. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2020.139776 [66] WANG X F, WANG G, SHI T Y, et al. Tensile mechanical behavior and spall response of a selective laser melted 17-4 PH stainless steel [J]. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2021, 52: 2369–2388. doi: 10.1007/s11661-021-06229-1 [67] 史同亚, 刘东升, 陈伟, 等. 激光选区熔化增材制造GP1不锈钢动态拉伸力学响应与层裂破坏 [J]. 爆炸与冲击, 2019, 39(7): 073101. doi: 10.11883/bzycj-2019-0015SHI T Y, LIU D S, CHEN W, et al. Dynamic tensile behavior and spall fracture of GP1 stainless steel processed by selective laser melting [J]. Explosion and Shock Waves, 2019, 39(7): 073101. doi: 10.11883/bzycj-2019-0015 [68] CLAUSEN B, BROWN D W, CARPENTER J S, et al. Deformation behavior of additively manufactured GP1 stainless steel [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2017, 696: 331–340. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2017.04.081 [69] GRAY Ⅲ G T, LIVESCU V, RIGG P A, et al. Structure/property (constitutive and spallation response) of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel [J]. Acta Materialia, 2017, 138: 140–149. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2017.07.045 [70] CARLTON H D, HABOU A, GALLEGOS G F, et al. Damage evolution and failure mechanisms in additively manufactured stainless steel [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2016, 651: 406–414. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2015.10.073 [71] RIZA S H, MASOOD S H, WEN C, et al. Dynamic behaviour of high strength steel parts developed through laser assisted direct metal deposition [J]. Materials & Design, 2014, 64: 650–659. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.08.026 [72] YANG Z, YU Y Y, WEI Y P, et al. Crushing behavior of a thin-walled circular tube with internal gradient grooves fabricated by SLM 3D printing [J]. Thin-Walled Structures, 2017, 111: 1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.tws.2016.11.004 [73] MONTERO-SISTIAGA M L, LIU Z Z, BAUTMANS L, et al. Effect of temperature on the microstructure and tensile properties of micro-crack free hastelloy X produced by selective laser melting [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 31: 100995. doi: 10.1016/J.ADDMA.2019.100995 [74] HAN Q Q, GU Y C, HUANG J, et al. Selective laser melting of Hastelloy X nanocomposite: effects of TiC reinforcement on crack elimination and strength improvement [J]. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2020, 202: 108442. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108442 [75] YUAN K B, LI X L, GUO W G, et al. Effect of microstructures and defects on dynamic compression and shear performance of laser metal-deposited GH4169 superalloy [J]. Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 2020, 33(3): 04020008. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)AS.1943-5525.0001122 [76] YUAN K B, GUO W G, LI P H, et al. Thermomechanical behavior of laser metal deposited Inconel 718 superalloy over a wide range of temperature and strain rate: testing and constitutive modeling [J]. Mechanics of Materials, 2019, 135: 13–25. doi: 10.1016/j.mechmat.2019.04.024 [77] YUAN K B, GUO W G, LI P H, et al. Influence of process parameters and heat treatments on the microstructures and dynamic mechanical behaviors of Inconel 718 superalloy manufactured by laser metal deposition [J]. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2018, 721: 215–225. doi: 10.1016/J.MSEA.2018.02.014 [78] BABAMIRI B B, INDECK J, DEMENEGHI G, et al. Quantification of porosity and microstructure and their effect on quasi-static and dynamic behavior of additively manufactured Inconel 718 [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 34: 101380. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101380 [79] LEE D G, LEE Y H, LEE S, et al. Dynamic deformation behavior and ballistic impact properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy having equiaxed and bimodal microstructures [J]. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2004, 35(10): 3103–3112. doi: 10.1007/S11661-004-0055-2 [80] 刘静楠, 叶常青, 刘桂森, 等. 高温、高压、高应变速率动态过程晶体塑性有限元理论模型及其应用 [J]. 高压物理学报, 2020, 34(3): 030102. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20190874LIU J N, YE C Q, LIU G S, et al. Crystal plasticity finite element theoretical models and applications for high temperature, high pressure and high strain-rate dynamic process [J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2020, 34(3): 030102. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.20190874 [81] BUDIWANTORO B, KARIEM M A, FEBRINAWARTA B. The influence of shear angles on the split Hopkinson shear bar testing [J]. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 2021, 149: 103787. doi: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2020.103787 [82] BACAK M, VALSECCHI J, ČAPEK J, et al. Neutron dark-field imaging applied to porosity and deformation-induced phase transitions in additively manufactured steels [J]. Materials & Design, 2020, 195: 109009. doi: 10.1016/J.MATDES.2020.109009 [83] TONG Q C, LUO X S, ADELEKE A A, et al. Machine learning metadynamics simulation of reconstructive phase transition [J]. Physics Review B, 2021, 103(5): 054107. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.103.054107 [84] WANG L, ZHAO F, ZHAO F P, et al. Grain boundary orientation effects on deformation of Ta bicrystal nanopillars under high strain-rate compression [J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 2014, 115(5): 053528. doi: 10.1063/1.4864427 [85] SUN J L, TRIMBY P W, YAN F K, et al. Shear banding in commercial pure titanium deformed by dynamic compression [J]. Acta Materialia, 2014, 79: 47–58. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2014.07.011 [86] ZHOU Y, FAN Q B, LIU X, et al. Multi-scale crystal plasticity finite element simulations of the microstructural evolution and formation mechanism of adiabatic shear bands in dual-phase Ti20C alloy under complex dynamic loading [J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2020, 59: 138–148. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2020.03.079 [87] 唐长国, 陈文涛, 朱金华. 钨合金高应变率导致的塑性降低及微观机理 [J]. 西安交通大学学报, 1997, 31(3): 28–32.TANG C G, CHEN W T, ZHU J H. The plasticity decreasing induced by high strain rateof tungsten alloy [J]. Journal of Xi’an Jiaotong University, 1997, 31(3): 28–32. [88] 桂毓林, 刘仓理, 王彦平, 等. AF1410钢的层裂断裂特性研究 [J]. 高压物理学报, 2006, 20(1): 34–38. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2006.01.008GUI Y L, LIU C L, WANG Y P, et al. Spall fracture properties of AF1410 steel [J]. Chinese Journal of High Pressure Physics, 2006, 20(1): 34–38. doi: 10.11858/gywlxb.2006.01.008 [89] 祁美兰, 秦晓云, 张林, 等. HR2钢动态损伤与层裂的微观机理 [J]. 兵器材料科学与工程, 2006, 29(3): 29–32. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1004-244X.2006.03.009QI M L, QIN X Y, ZHANG L, et al. Micromechanism of the dynamic damage and spallation of HR2 steel [J]. Ordnance Material Science and Engineering, 2006, 29(3): 29–32. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1004-244X.2006.03.009 [90] FADIDA R, RITTEL D, SHIRIZLY A. Dynamic mechanical behavior of additively manufactured Ti6Al4V with controlled voids [J]. Journal of Applied Mechanics, 2015, 82(4): 041004. doi: 10.1115/1.4029745 [91] GENG R W, DU J, WEI Z Y, et al. Multiscale modelling of microstructure, micro-segregation, and local mechanical properties of Al-Cu alloys in wire and arc additive manufacturing [J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 36: 101735. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101735 -
下载:
下载:
点击查看大图
计量
- 文章访问数: 5719
- HTML全文浏览量: 1069
- PDF下载量: 131
